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on its impact (i.e., on diffusion and sales; Godes and May-
zlin 2004, 2009; Goldenberg et al. 2009). However, there has
been less attention to its causes or what drives people to share
content with others and what type of content is more likely
to be shared. By combining a large-scale examination of real
transmission in the field with tightly controlled experiments,
we both demonstrate characteristics of viral online content
and shed light on the underlying JLI=?MM?MNB;N>LCP?J?IJF?
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CONTENT CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIAL
TRANSMISSION
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Emotional Valence and Social Transmission
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THE CURRENT RESEARCH
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STUDY 1: A FIELD STUDY OF EMOTIONS AND
VIRALITY
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NB;HIH?M?F@?A;H?QM=C?HNC@C=>CM=IP?LSMIG?IH?IP?L
=IGCHA;>P?LMCNSM??(?FNH?L;H>%;C>N&NCMA?H?L
;N?><SMNCGOFCNB;NIJ?HNB?GCH>NIOH=IHMC>?L?>JIMMC<CF
CNC?M;H>NB?;LIOM;FCNCH>O=?MG;SJLIGIN?NL;HMGCMMCIH
&GJILN;HNFSIOL?GJCLC=;F;H;FSM?M=IHNLIF@ILM?P?L;F
JIN?HNC;FFS=IH@IOH>CHAP;LC;<F?M#CLMN;MQ?HIN?>JL?PC
IOMFSJL;=NC=;FFSOM?@OF=IHN?HNG;S<?GIL?PCL;F<?=;OM?
CN JLIPC>?M CH@ILG;NCIH 0?F@JL?M?HN;NCIH GINCP?M ;FMI
MB;J?NL;HMGCMMCIH4IDHC=EC;H>$I>?M;H>J?IJF?
G;SMB;L? CHN?L?MNCHA ILMOLJLCMCHA=IHN?HN<?=;OM? CN CM
?HN?LN;CHCHA;H>L?@F?=NMJIMCNCP?FSIHNB?GC?MOAA?MNM
NB;NNB?SEHIQCHN?L?MNCHAIL?HN?LN;CHCHANBCHAM IHM?
KO?HNFSQ?=IHNLIF@ILNB?M?@;=NILMNI?R;GCH?NB?FCHE
<?NQ??H?GINCIH;H>PCL;FCNS<?SIH>NB?GNBIOABNB?CL
L?F;NCIHMBCJMQCNBPCL;FCNSG;S<?I@CHN?L?MNNIMIG?M=BIF
;LM;H>JL;=NCNCIH?LM
0?=IH>IOL;H;FSM?M;FMI=IHNLIF@ILNBCHAM<?SIH>NB?
=IHN?HNCNM?F@LNC=F?MNB;N;JJ?;LIHNB?@LIHNJ;A?I@NB?
H?QMJ;J?LILMJ?H>GIL?NCG?CHJLIGCH?HNJIMCNCIHMIH
NB?New York Times_BIG?J;A?G;SL?=?CP?GIL?;NN?HNCIH
;H>NBOMG?=B;HC=;FFSB;P?;<?NN?L=B;H=?I@G;ECHANB?
GIMN?G;CF?>FCMN IHM?KO?HNFSQ?=IHNLIF@ILNB?M?;H>
INB?LJIN?HNC;F?RN?LH;F>LCP?LMI@;NN?HNCIH
&H=FO>CHANB?M?
=IHNLIFM;FMI?H;<F?MOMNI=IGJ;L?NB?L?F;NCP?CGJ;=NI@
JF;=?G?HNP?LMOM=IHN?HN=B;L;=N?LCMNC=MCHMB;JCHAPCL;FCNS
4BCF?<?CHAB?;PCFS;>P?LNCM?>ILCHNBCM=;M?JLIGCH?HNFS
@?;NOL?>MBIOF>FCE?FSCH=L?;M?NB?=B;H=?=IHN?HNG;E?M
NB?GIMN?G;CF?>FCMNQ??R;GCH?QB?NB?L=IHN?HN=B;L;=
N?LCMNC=M?AQB?NB?L;H;LNC=F?CMJIMCNCP?IL;Q?CHMJCLCHA
;L?I@MCGCF;LCGJILN;H=?
Data
4?=IFF?=N?>CH@ILG;NCIH;<ION;FFNew York Times ;LNC
=F?MNB;N;JJ?;L?>IHNB?H?QMJ;J?L_MBIG?J;A?QQQ
HSNCG?M=IG<?NQ??HOAOMN;H>+IP?G<?L
;LNC=F?M4?=;JNOL?>>;N;OMCHA;Q?<=L;QF?LNB;N
PCMCN?>NB?New York Times_BIG?J;A??P?LSGCHON?M
>OLCHANB?J?LCI>CHKO?MNCIH&NL?=IL>?>CH@ILG;NCIH;<ION
?P?LS;LNC=F?IHNB?BIG?J;A?;H>?;=B;LNC=F?IHNB?GIMN
?G;CF?>FCMNOJ>;N?>?P?LSGCHON?M4?=;JNOL?>?;=B
;LNC=F?_MNCNF?@OFFN?RN;ONBILMNIJC=;L?;?AIJCHCIH
MJILNM;H>NQIM?HN?H=?MOGG;LS=L?;N?><SNB?New York
Times4?;FMI=;JNOL?>?;=B;LNC=F?_MM?=NCIHJ;A?;H>
JO<FC=;NCIH>;N?C@CN;JJ?;L?>CHNB?JLCHNJ;J?L;MQ?FF;M
NB?>;N?MNCG?MFI=;NCIHM;H>>OL;NCIHMI@;FF;JJ?;L;H=?M
CNG;>?IHNB?New York Times_BIG?J;A?,@NB?;LNC=F?M
CHIOL>;N;M?N?;LH?>;JIMCNCIHIHNB?GIMN?G;CF?>
FCMN
Article Coding
4?=I>?>NB?;LNC=F?MIHM?P?L;F>CG?HMCIHM#CLMNQ?
OM?>;ONIG;N?>M?HNCG?HN;H;FSMCMNIKO;HNC@SNB?JIMCNCPCNS
C?P;F?H=?;H>?GINCIH;FCNSC?;@@?=NF;>?HH?MMI@
?;=B;LNC=F?1B?M?G?NBI>M;L?Q?FF?MN;<FCMB?>-;HA;H>
)??;H>CH=L?;M?=I>CHA?;M?;H>I<D?=NCPCNSONI
G;N?>L;NCHAMQ?L?;FMIMCAHC@C=;HNFSJIMCNCP?FS=ILL?F;N?>
QCNBG;HO;F=I>?LM_L;NCHAMI@;MO<M?NI@;LNC=F?M=IG
JON?LJLIAL;G)&4 =IOHN?>NB?HOG<?LI@JIMCNCP?;H>
H?A;NCP?QIL>MCH?;=B;LNC=F?OMCHA;FCMNI@QIL>M=F;M
MC@C?> ;MJIMCNCP?ILH?A;NCP?<SBOG;HL?;>?LM-?HH?<;E?L
IINB ;H>#L;H=CM4?KO;HNC@C?>JIMCNCPCNS;MNB?
>C@@?L?H=?<?NQ??HNB?J?L=?HN;A?I@JIMCNCP?;H>H?A;NCP?
QIL>MCH;H;LNC=F?4?KO;HNC@C?>?GINCIH;FCNS;MNB?J?L
=?HN;A?I@QIL>MNB;NQ?L?=F;MMC@C?>;M?CNB?LJIMCNCP?IL
H?A;NCP?
0?=IH>Q?L?FC?>IHBOG;H=I>?LMNI=F;MMC@SNB??RN?HN
NIQBC=B=IHN?HN?RBC<CN?>INB?LGIL?MJ?=C@C==B;L;=N?LCM
NC=M?A?PIE?>;HA?L<?=;OM?;ONIG;N?>=I>CHAMSMN?GM
Q?L?HIN;P;CF;<F?@ILNB?M?P;LC;<F?M&H;>>CNCIHNI=I>CHA
QB?NB?L;LNC=F?M=IHN;CH?>JL;=NC=;FFSOM?@OFCH@ILG;NCIHIL
?PIE?>CHN?L?MNILMOLJLCM?=IHNLIFP;LC;<F?M=I>?LMKO;H
NC@C?>NB??RN?HNNIQBC=B?;=B;LNC=F??PIE?>;HRC?NS;HA?L
;Q? IL M;>H?MM
I>?LM Q?L? <FCH> NI IOL BSJINB?M?M
1B?SL?=?CP?>NB?NCNF?;H>MOGG;LSI@?;=B;LNC=F?;Q?<
FCHENINB?;LNC=F?_M@OFFN?RN;H>>?N;CF?>=I>CHACHMNLO=NCIHM
M??NB?4?<JJ?H>CR;NQQQG;LE?NCHAJIQ?L=IGDGL:
Q?<;JJ?H>CR$CP?HNB?IP?LQB?FGCHAHOG<?LI@;LNC=F?M
CHIOL>;N;M?NQ?M?F?=N?>;L;H>IGMO<M;GJF?@IL=I>CHA
H#IL?;=B>CG?HMCIH;Q?;HA?L;HRC?NSM;>
1B?M?@CAOL?M;L?<;M?>IHNew York Times L?;>?LMQBIQ?L?;ME?>
QCNBQBIGNB?SB;>GIMNL?=?HNFSMB;L?>;H;LNC=F?
!CM=OMMCIHQCNBH?QMJ;J?LMN;@@CH>C=;N?>NB;N?>CNILC;F>?=CMCIHM;<ION
BIQNI@?;NOL?;LNC=F?MIHNB?BIG?J;A?;L?G;>?CH>?J?H>?HNFSI@;H>
Q?FF<?@IL?NB?CL;JJ?;L;H=?IHNB?GIMN?G;CF?>FCMN
$CP?HNB;NJLCILQILEB;M?R;GCH?>BIQNB??GINCIHI@>CMAOMNGCABN
;@@?=NNB?NL;HMGCMMCIHI@OL<;HF?A?H>M%?;NB?FF;H>0N?LH<?LA
Q?;FMICH=FO>?>CMAOMNCHIOL;H;FSMCM1B?L?MNI@NB?L?MOFNML?G;CH
OH=B;HA?>L?A;L>F?MMI@QB?NB?LCNCMCHNB?GI>?F4BCF?Q?>IHIN@CH>
;HSMCAHC@C=;HNL?F;NCIHMBCJ<?NQ??H>CMAOMN;H>PCL;FCNSNBCMG;S<?>O?
CHJ;LNNINB?HINCIHNB;NCHA?H?L;FNew York Times ;LNC=F?M?FC=CNFCNNF?I@
NBCM?GINCIH
H?MM MOLJLCM? JL;=NC=;F ONCFCNS ;H> CHN?L?MN ; M?J;L;N?
ALIOJI@NBL??CH>?J?H>?HNL;N?LML;N?>?;=B;LNC=F?IH;
@CP?JICHN)CE?LNM=;F?;==IL>CHANINB??RN?HNNIQBC=BCN
Q;M=B;L;=N?LCT?><SNB?=IHMNLO=NCHKO?MNCIH]HIN;N
;FF^;H>]?RNL?G?FS^4?A;P?L;N?LM@??><;=EIHNB?CL
=I>CHAI@;N?MNM?NI@;LNC=F?MOHNCFCNQ;M=F?;LNB;NNB?S
OH>?LMNII>NB?L?F?P;HN=IHMNLO=N&HN?LL;N?LL?FC;<CFCNSQ;M
BCABIH;FF>CG?HMCIHM;FF_MCH>C=;NCHANB;N=IH
N?HN N?H>M NI ?PIE? MCGCF;L ?GINCIHM ;=LIMM J?IJF? 4?
;P?L;A?>M=IL?M;=LIMM=I>?LM;H>MN;H>;L>CT?>NB?G@IL
M;GJF?;LNC=F?MNB;NM=IL?>BCABFSIHNB?>C@@?L?HN>CG?H
MCIHMM??1;<F?@ILMOGG;LSMN;NCMNC=MM??1;<F?;H>
@IL=ILL?F;NCIHM<?NQ??HP;LC;<F?MM??NB?JJ?H>CR4?
;MMCAH?>;FFOH=I>?>;LNC=F?M;M=IL?I@T?LIIH?;=B>CG?H
MCIH;@N?LMN;H>;L>CT;NCIHC?Q?;MMCAH?>OH=I>?>;LNC=F?M
NB?G?;HP;FO?;H>Q?CH=FO>?>;>OGGSCHL?AL?MMCIH
;H;FSM?MNI=IHNLIF@ILOH=I>?>MNILC?M@IL;>CM=OMMCIHI@
NBCM MN;H>;L> CGJON;NCIH G?NBI>IFIAS M?? IB?H ;H>
IB?H1BCM?H;<F?>OMNIOM?NB?@OFFM?NI@;LNC=F?M
=IFF?=N?>NI;H;FST?NB?L?F;NCIHMBCJ<?NQ??HINB?L=IHN?HN
=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M NB;N >C> HIN L?KOCL? G;HO;F =I>CHA ;H>
PCL;FCNS2MCHAIHFSNB?=I>?>MO<M?NI@;LNC=F?MJLIPC>?M
MCGCF;LL?MOFNM
Additional Controls
MQ?>CM=OMM?>JL?PCIOMFS?RN?LH;F@;=NILMM?J;L;N?
@LIG=IHN?HN=B;L;=N?LCMNC=MG;S;@@?=N;H;LNC=F?_MPCL;FCNS
<S@OH=NCIHCHAFCE?;>P?LNCMCHA IHM?KO?HNFSQ? LCAIL
IOMFS=IHNLIF@ILMO=B@;=NILMCHIOL;H;FSM?M@IL;FCMNI@
;FFCH>?J?H>?HNP;LC;<F?MCH=FO>CHA=IHNLIFMM??1;<F?
Appearance in the physical newspaper1I=B;L;=N?LCT?
QB?L?;H;LNC=F?;JJ?;L?>CHNB?JBSMC=;FH?QMJ;J?LQ?
=L?;N?>>OGGSP;LC;<F?MNI=IHNLIF@ILNB?;LNC=F?_MM?=NCIH
?A 0?=NCIH 4? ;FMI =L?;N?> CH>C=;NIL P;LC;<F?M NI
KO;HNC@SNB?J;A?CH;ACP?HM?=NCIH?AQB?L?;H;LNC
=F? ;JJ?;L?> CH JLCHN NI =IHNLIF @IL NB? JIMMC<CFCNS NB;N
;JJ?;LCHA?;LFC?LCHMIG?M?=NCIHMB;M;>C@@?L?HN?@@?=NNB;H
;JJ?;LCHA?;LFC?LCHINB?LM
Appearance on the home page1I=B;L;=N?LCT?BIQGO=B
NCG?;H;LNC=F?MJ?HNCHJLIGCH?HNJIMCNCIHMIHNB?BIG?
J;A?Q?=L?;N?>P;LC;<F?MNB;NCH>C=;N?>QB?L?QB?H;H>
@ILBIQFIHA?P?LS;LNC=F?Q;M@?;NOL?>IHNB?New York
Times BIG?J;A?1B? BIG?J;A?F;SIONL?G;CH?>NB?M;G?
NBLIOABION NB? J?LCI> I@ >;N; =IFF?=NCIHLNC=F?M =IOF>
;JJ?;LCHM?P?L;F>IT?HJIMCNCIHMIHNB?BIG?J;A?MIQ?
;AAL?A;N?>JIMCNCIHMCHNIM?P?HA?H?L;FL?ACIHM<;M?>IH
FI=;NCIHMNB;NFCE?FSL?=?CP?MCGCF;L;GIOHNMI@;NN?HNCIH
#CAOL?4?CH=FO>?>P;LC;<F?MCH>C=;NCHANB?;GIOHNI@
NCG? ;H ;LNC=F? MJ?HN CH ?;=B I@ NB?M? M?P?H L?ACIHM ;M
=IHNLIFM;@N?L4CHMILCT;NCIHI@NB?NIJI@IONFC?LMNI
JL?P?HN?RNL?G?IONFC?LM@LIG?R?LNCHAOH>O?CH@FO?H=?IH
IOL L?MOFNM @IL MOGG;LS MN;NCMNC=M M??1;<F?M4 ;H>
4CHNB?4?<JJ?H>CR;NQQQG;LE?NCHAJIQ?L=IG
DGL:Q?<;JJ?H>CR
Release timing and author fame1I=IHNLIF@ILNB?JIMMC
<CFCNSNB;N;LNC=F?ML?F?;M?>;N>C@@?L?HNNCG?MI@>;SL?=?CP?
>C@@?L?HN;GIOHNMI@;NN?HNCIHQ?=L?;N?>=IHNLIFM@ILNB?
NCG?I@>;S
*[-* IL-*[* ?;MN?LHMN;H>;L>
NCG?QB?H;H;LNC=F?@CLMN;JJ?;L?>IHFCH?4?=IHNLIF@IL
;ONBIL@;G?NI?HMOL?NB;NIOLL?MOFNM;L?HIN>LCP?H<SNB?
N;MN?MI@J;LNC=OF;LFSJIJOF;LQLCN?LMQBIM?MNILC?MG;S<?
GIL?FCE?FSNI<?MB;L?>1IKO;HNC@S;ONBIL@;G?Q?=;J
NOL?NB?HOG<?LI@$IIAF?BCNML?NOLH?><S;M?;L=B@IL?;=B
@CLMN;ONBIL_M@OFFH;G?;MI@#?<LO;LS?=;OM?
$)&#!$"& (#&'&52.1;3%>6:@
(./82
&(!'(('$&!-$#&#("#'$#'
Primary Predictors
Emotionality
W]/?>?@CHCHA!?JL?MMCIH;M*?L?0;>H?MM^
W]4B?HFF"FM?#;CFMF;GCHANB?-;NC?HN,@N?H IG?M+?RN^
Positivity
W]4C>?"S?>+?QLLCP;FM#;FFCHACH)IP?QCNBNB? CNS^
W]1IHSQ;L>@IL-BCF;HNBLIJS^
)IQ0=ILCHA
W]4?</OGILM1C?>NI(IL?;H=NL?MM_M0OC=C>?^
W]$?LG;HS;<S-IF;L?;L_M#??>?L!C?M^
Awe
W]/;L?1L?;NG?HN&M/?JILN?>NI OL?&!0-;NC?HN^
W]1B?-LIGCM?;H>-IQ?LI@/+^
Anger
W]4B;N/?>&HE4;FF0NL??N-;C>%?@NSIHOM?M^
W])I;H1CN;HM-;C>*= ;CH>PCM?L+?;LFS*CFFCIH^
Anxiety
W]#IL0NI=EM4ILMN0CHAF?!;S!LIJCH1QI!?=;>?M^
W]%IG?-LC=?M0??G#;L@LIGINNIG^
Sadness
W]*;CG?>IH1LSCHANI?4BIF?A;CH^
W],<;G;-;SM1LC<ON?NI%CM$L;H>GINB?L@N?L0B?!C?M^
Control Variables
Practical Utility
W]3IN?L/?MIOL=?M^
W]&N IG?MCH?CA?ILF;=E<ON6IO*;E?&N$L??H^;MNILS
;<ION<?CHA?HPCLIHG?HN;FFS@LC?H>FSQB?H>CMJIMCHAI@IF>
=IGJON?LM
Interest
W])IP?0?R;H>NB? B;HACHA);H>M=;J?I@&H@C>?FCNS^
W]1?;GM-L?J;L?@ILNB? IOLNMBCJI@)?LIH';G?M^
Surprise
W]-;MMCIH@IL#II>>DOMNMNI#CN-;MMCIH@IL/OHHCHA^;MNILS
;<ION;L?MN;OL;N?OLQBILOHMG;L;NBIHM
W]-?=ECHA<ON+I,L>?LIH0NL??NMI@";MN%;LF?G^;MNILS;<ION
=BC=E?HMCH%;LF?G
(./82
%&($&*&!')""&-'(('('
M SD
Primary Predictor Variables
"GINCIH;FCNS
;
-IMCNCPCNS
;
Q?
;
HA?L
;
HRC?NS
;
0;>H?MM
;
Other Control Variables
-L;=NC=;FONCFCNS
;
&HN?L?MN
;
0OLJLCM?
;
4IL>=IOHN
IGJF?RCNS
;
ONBIL@;G?
ONBIL@?G;F?
ONBILG;F?
;
1B?M?MOGG;LS MN;NCMNC=M J?LN;CHNI NB? P;LC;<F? CH KO?MNCIH <?@IL?
MN;H>;L>CT;NCIH
+5.@".72?$:86:2;:@2:@*6>.8
I@CNMME?QQ?OM?NB?FIA;LCNBGI@NBCMP;LC;<F?;M;=IH
NLIFCHIOL;H;FSM?M4?;FMI=IHNLIF@ILP;LC;<F?MNB;NGCABN
<INBCH@FO?H=?NL;HMGCMMCIH;H>NB?FCE?FCBII>NB;N;H;LNC
=F?JIMM?MM?M=?LN;CH=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M?A?PIE?M;HA?L
Writing complexity4?=IHNLIF@ILBIQ>C@@C=OFN;JC?=?
I@QLCNCHACMNIL?;>OMCHANB?0*,$ IGJF?RCNS&H>?R
*=);OABFCH1BCMQC>?FSOM?>CH>?RP;LC;<F??MM?H
NC;FFSG?;MOL?MNB?AL;>?F?P?F;JJLIJLC;N?H?MMI@NB?QLCN
CHAFN?LH;N?=IGJF?RCNSG?;MOL?MSC?F>MCGCF;LL?MOFNM
Author gender?=;OM?G;F?;H>@?G;F?;ONBILMB;P?
>C@@?L?HN QLCNCHA MNSF?M(IJJ?FLA;GIH ;H> 0BCGIHC
*CFEG;H ;LGIH;;H>$F?;MIHQ?=IHNLIF
@ILNB?A?H>?LI@;H;LNC=F?_M@CLMN;ONBILG;F?@?G;F?IL
OHEHIQH>O?NI;GCMMCHA<SFCH?4?=F;MMC@SA?H>?LOMCHA
; @CLMN H;G? G;JJCHA FCMN @LIG JLCIL L?M?;L=B *ILNIH
7?NN?FG?S?L;H>0CFP;/CMMI#ILH;G?MNB;NQ?L?
=F;MMC@C?>;MA?H>?LH?ONL;FIL>C>HIN;JJ?;LIHNBCMFCMN
L?M?;L=B;MMCMN;HNM>?N?LGCH?>;ONBILA?H>?L<S@CH>CHANB?
;ONBILMIHFCH?
Article length and day dummies4?;FMI=IHNLIF@IL;H
;LNC=F?_MF?HANBCHQIL>M)IHA?L;LNC=F?MG;S<?GIL?FCE?FS
NIAICHNI?HIOAB>?N;CFNICHMJCL?;Q?IL?PIE?;HA?L<ON
G;SMCGJFS<?GIL?PCL;F<?=;OM?NB?S=IHN;CHGIL?CH@IL
G;NCIH#CH;FFSQ?OM?>;S>OGGC?MNI=IHNLIF@IL<INB
=IGJ?NCNCIH;GIHA;LNC=F?MNIG;E?NB?GIMN?G;CF?>FCMN
C?INB?L=IHN?HNNB;N=;G?IONNB?M;G?>;S;MQ?FF;M
;HSINB?LNCG?MJ?=C@C=?@@?=NM?AQILF>?P?HNMNB;NGCABN
;@@?=N;LNC=F?=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M;H>L?;>?LCHN?L?MN
Analysis Strategy
FGIMN;FF;LNC=F?MNB;NG;E?NB?GIMN?G;CF?>FCMN>IMI
IHFSIH=?C?NB?S>IHINF?;P?NB?FCMN;H>L?;JJ?;LMI
Q?GI>?FFCMNG;ECHA;M;MCHAF??P?HN@IL@OLNB?L>CM=OM
MCIHM??NB?4?<JJ?H>CR;NQQQG;LE?NCHAJIQ?L=IG
DGL:Q?<;JJ?H>CR 4? L?FS IH NB? @IFFIQCHA FIACMNC=
L?AL?MMCIHMJ?=C@C=;NCIH
QB?L?G;E?M:CN
;N
CM;P;LC;<F?NB;NN;E?M;P;FO?I@QB?H
;H;LNC=F?;L?F?;M?>IHFCH?IH>;SN?;LHM;JIMCNCIHIHNB?
GIMN?G;CF?>FCMN;H>INB?LQCM?;H>
N
CM;HOHI<M?LP?>
>;SMJ?=C@C=?@@?=N,OLJLCG;LSJL?>C=NILP;LC;<F?MKO;HNC@S
NB??RN?HNNIQBC=B;LNC=F?;JO<FCMB?>IH>;SNQ;M=I>?>;M
JIMCNCP??GINCIH;F;Q?CHMJCLCHA;HA?LCH>O=CHA;HRC?NS
CH>O=CHAILM;>H?MMCH>O=CHA1B?N?LG5
;N
CM;P?=NILI@
NB?INB?L=IHNLIFP;LC;<F?M>?M=LC<?>JL?PCIOMFSM??1;<F?
4??MNCG;N?NB??KO;NCIHQCNB@CR?>?@@?=NM@ILNB?>;S
I@;H;LNC=F?_ML?F?;M?=FOMN?LCHAMN;H>;L>?LLILM<S>;SI@
L?F?;M?/?MOFNM;L?MCGCF;LC@@CR?>?@@?=NM;L?HINCH=FO>?>
Results
Is positive or negative content more viral? #CLMN Q?
?R;GCH?=IHN?HNP;F?H=?1B?L?MOFNMCH>C=;N?NB;N=IHN?HNCM
GIL?FCE?FSNI<?=IG?PCL;FNB?GIL?JIMCNCP?CNCM1;<F?
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?PIE?MGIL?I@;H;=NCP;NCHA?GINCIH;GOM?G?HNIL;HA?L
MBIOF><?GIL?FCE?FSNI<?MB;L?>#CH;FFSQ?G?;MOL?>
?RJ?LC?H=?>;=NCP;NCIHNIN?MNQB?NB?LCN>LCP?MNB??@@?=NI@
?GINCIHIHMB;LCHA
Study2a: Amusement
-;LNC=CJ;HNM+Q?L?L;H>IGFS;MMCAH?>NIL?;>
?CNB?L;BCABILFIQ;GOM?G?HNP?LMCIHI@;MNILS;<ION;
L?=?HN;>P?LNCMCHA=;GJ;CAH@IL'CGGS!?;HM;OM;A?M1B?
NQIP?LMCIHMQ?L?;>;JN?>@LIGJLCILQILE*=$L;Q;H>
4;LL?H MBIQCHA NB;N NB?S >C@@?L?> IH BIQ GO=B
BOGILNB?S?PIE?>;JL?N?MNMBIQ?>NB;NNB?S>C>HIN>C@@?L
CHBIQGO=BCHN?L?MNNB?S?PIE?>&HNB?FIQ;GOM?G?HN
=IH>CNCIH'CGGS!?;H>?=C>?MNIBCL?;@;LG?L;MNB?H?Q
MJIE?MJ?LMIH@ILNB?=IGJ;HS_MFCH?I@JILEJLI>O=NM&H
NB?BCAB;GOM?G?HN=IH>CNCIH'CGGS!?;H>?=C>?MNIBCL?
;L;<<CQBC=BCM@OHHSACP?HNB;NNB?=IGJ;HSG;E?MJILE
JLI>O=NM;H>NB;NJILECMHIN=IHMC>?L?>EIMB?L@N?LL?;>
CHA;<IONNB?=;GJ;CAHJ;LNC=CJ;HNMQ?L?;ME?>BIQFCE?FS
64A>2
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% Change in Fitted Probability of Making the List
F
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;H>]?RNL?G?FSFCE?FS^
-;LNC=CJ;HNM;FMIL;N?>NB?CLF?P?FI@;LIOM;FOMCHANBL??
M?P?HJICHNM=;F?M]%IQ>ISIO@??FLCABNHIQ^0=;F?M
Q?L?;H=BIL?>;N]P?LSJ;MMCP?P?LS;=NCP?^]P?LSG?FFIQ
P?LS@CL?>OJ^;H>]P?LSFIQ?H?LASP?LSBCAB?H?LAS^
Q?;>;JN?>NBCMG?;MOL?@LIG?LA?L89;H>;P?L
;A?>NB?L?MJIHM?MNI@ILG;H;=NCP;NCIHCH>?R
Results M Q? JL?>C=N?> J;LNC=CJ;HNM L?JILN?> NB?S
QIOF> <? GIL? FCE?FS NI MB;L?NB? ;>P?LNCMCHA =;GJ;CAH
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NB?;LIOM;FCN?PIE?>#CLMNJ;LNC=CJ;HNML?JILN?>NB;NNB?S
QIOF> <? GIL? FCE?FS NI MB;L? NB?;>P?LNCM?G?HNC@ NB?S
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;GOM?G?HN =IH>CNCIH * # p
0?=IH>NB?L?MOFNMQ?L?MCGCF;L@IL;LIOM;FNB?BCAB
;GOM?G?HN=IH>CNCIH*?PIE?>GIL?;LIOM;FNB;H
NB?FIQ;GOM?G?HN=IH>CNCIH*#
p 1BCL>;MQ?JL?>C=N?>NBCM<IIMNCH;LIOM;FG?>C
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L?AL?MMCIHJL?>C=NCHAMB;LCHA;LIOM;FG?>C;N?>NB??@@?=NI@
;GOM?G?HNIHNL;HMGCMMCIH0I<?FTp
Study2b: Anger
-;LNC=CJ;HNM+Q?L?L;H>IGFS;MMCAH?>NIL?;>
?CNB?L;BCABILFIQ;HA?LP?LMCIHI@;MNILS;<ION;L?;F
H?A;NCP?=OMNIG?LM?LPC=??RJ?LC?H=?QCNB2HCN?>CLFCH?M
+?ALIHC4?JL?N?MN?>NB?NQIP?LMCIHMNI?HMOL?
NB;NNB?S?PIE?>>C@@?L?HN;GIOHNMI@;HA?L<ONHININB?L
MJ?=C@C=?GINCIHMCHN?L?MNILJIMCNCPCNSCHA?H?L;F&H<INB
=IH>CNCIHMNB?MNILS>?M=LC<?>;GOMC=ALIOJNL;P?FCHAIH
2HCN?> CLFCH?M NI <?ACH ; Q??EFIHANIOL I@ MBIQM CH
+?<L;ME; M NB?S Q?L? ;<ION NI F?;P? BIQ?P?L NB?S
HINC=?>NB;NNB?2HCN?><;AA;A?B;H>F?LMQ?L?GCMB;H>FCHA
NB?CLAOCN;LM1B?S;ME?>@ILB?FJ@LIG@FCABN;NN?H>;HNM<ON
<SNB?NCG?NB?SF;H>?>NB?AOCN;LMB;><??H>;G;A?>&H
NB? BCAB;HA?L =IH>CNCIH NB? MNILS Q;M NCNF?> ]2HCN?>
0G;MB?M$OCN;LM^;H>CN>?M=LC<?>BIQNB?<;AA;A?B;H
>F?LMM??G?>HINNI=;L?;<IONNB?AOCN;LM;H>BIQ2HCN?>
Q;MOHQCFFCHANIJ;S@ILNB?>;G;A?M&HNB?FIQ;HA?L=IH
>CNCIHNB?MNILSQ;MNCNF?>]2HCN?>!?HNM$OCN;LM^;H>CN
>?M=LC<?>NB?<;AA;A?B;H>F?LM;MB;PCHA>LIJJ?>NB?AOC
N;LM<ON2HCN?>Q;MQCFFCHANIB?FJJ;S@ILNB?>;G;A?M
@N?LL?;>CHANB?MNILSJ;LNC=CJ;HNML;N?>BIQFCE?FSNB?S
QIOF><?NIMB;L?NB?=OMNIG?LM?LPC=??RJ?LC?H=?;MQ?FF
;MNB?CL;LIOM;FOMCHANB?M=;F?M@LIG0NO>S;
ResultsMQ?JL?>C=N?>J;LNC=CJ;HNML?JILN?>NB;NNB?S
QIOF><?GIL?FCE?FSNIMB;L?NB?=OMNIG?LM?LPC=??RJ?LC
?H=?QB?HCNCH>O=?>GIL?;HA?L;H>NBCMQ;M>LCP?H<SNB?
;LIOM;FCN?PIE?>#CLMNJ;LNC=CJ;HNML?JILN?><?CHAGIL?
FCE?FSNIMB;L?NB?=OMNIG?LM?LPC=??RJ?LC?H=?C@NB?SQ?L?
CHNB?BCAB;HA?L=IH>CNCIH*;MIJJIM?>NIFIQ
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IH>NB?L?MOFNMQ?L?MCGCF;L@IL;LIOM;FNB?BCAB;HA?L=IH
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=IH>CNCIH*#p 1BCL>;M
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p
Discussion
1B??RJ?LCG?HN;FL?MOFNML?CH@IL=?NB?@CH>CHAM@LIGIOL
;L=BCP;F@C?F>MNO>SMOJJILNIOLBSJINB?MCT?>JLI=?MM;H>
A?H?L;FCT?IOL@CH>CHAMNI;<LI;>?LL;HA?I@=IHN?HN#CLMN
=IHMCMN?HNQCNBIOL;H;FSMCMI@NB?New York Times_GIMN?
G;CF?>FCMNNB?;GIOHNI@?GINCIH=IHN?HN?PIE?>CH@FO
?H=?> NL;HMGCMMCIH -?IJF? L?JILN?> NB;N NB?S QIOF> <?
GIL?FCE?FSNIMB;L?;H;>P?LNCM?G?HNQB?HCN?PIE?>GIL?
;GOM?G?HN0NO>S;;H>;=OMNIG?LM?LPC=??RJ?LC?H=?
QB?HCN?PIE?>GIL?;HA?L0NO>S<0?=IH>NB?L?MOFNM
OH>?LM=IL?IOLBSJINB?MCT?>G?=B;HCMGLIOM;FG?>C;N?>
NB?CGJ;=NI@?GINCIHIHMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH IHN?HNNB;N
?PIE?M GIL? ;HA?L IL ;GOM?G?HN CM GIL? FCE?FS NI <?
MB;L?> ;H> NBCM CM >LCP?H <S NB? F?P?F I@ ;=NCP;NCIH CN
CH>O=?M
STUDY 3: HOW DEACTIVATING EMOTIONS AFFECT
TRANSMISSION
,OL@CH;F?RJ?LCG?HN@OLNB?LN?MNMNB?LIF?I@;LIOM;F<S
?R;GCHCHABIQde;=NCP;NCHA?GINCIHM;@@?=NNL;HMGCMMCIH
0NO>C?M;;H><MBIQNB;NCH=L?;MCHANB?;GIOHNI@BCAB
;LIOM;F?GINCIHM<IIMNMMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH>O?NINB?;=NC
P;NCIHCNCH>O=?M<ONC@IOLNB?ILSCM=ILL?=NNB?M??@@?=NM
MBIOF> L?P?LM? @IL FIQ;LIOM;F ?GINCIHM IHN?HN NB;N
?PIE?MGIL?M;>H?MM@IL?R;GJF?MBIOF><?F?MMFCE?FSNI
<?MB;L?><?=;OM?CN>?;=NCP;N?ML;NB?LNB;H;=NCP;N?M
+IN?NB;NNBCMCM;J;LNC=OF;LFSMNLIHAN?MNI@IOLNB?ILS
<?=;OM? NB? JL?>C=NCIH AI?M ;A;CHMN M?P?L;F ;FN?LH;NCP?
?RJF;H;NCIHM@ILIOL@CH>CHAMCH0NO>S&N=IOF><?;LAO?>
NB;N?PIECHAGIL?I@;HSMJ?=C@C=?GINCIHG;E?M=IHN?HN
<?NN?LILGIL?=IGJ?FFCHA<ONMO=B;H?RJF;H;NCIHQIOF>
MOAA?MNNB;N?PIECHAGIL?M;>H?MMMBIOF>CH=L?;M?L;NB?L
NB;H>?=L?;M?NL;HMGCMMCIH
Method
-;LNC=CJ;HNM+Q?L?L;H>IGFS;MMCAH?>NIL?;>
?CNB?L;BCABILFIQM;>H?MMP?LMCIHI@;H?QM;LNC=F?4?
JL?N?MN?>NB?NQIP?LMCIHMNI?HMOL?NB;NNB?S?PIE?>>C@@?L
?HN ;GIOHNM I@ M;>H?MM <ON HIN INB?L MJ?=C@C= ?GINCIHM
CHN?L?MNILJIMCNCPCNSCHA?H?L;F&H<INB=IH>CNCIHMNB?;LNC
=F? >?M=LC<?> MIG?IH? QBI B;> NI B;P? NCN;HCOG JCHM
CGJF;HN?>CHB?LB;H>M;H>L?F?;LHB?LALCJ;@N?LMOMN;CHCHA
CHDOLC?M1B?>C@@?L?H=?<?NQ??H=IH>CNCIHMQ;MNB?MIOL=?
I@NB?CHDOLS&HNB?BCABM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIHNB?MNILSQ;M
N;E?H >CL?=NFS @LIGIOLNew York Times >;N;M?N&NQ;M
NCNF?>]*;CG?>IH1LSCHANI?4BIF?A;CH^;H>CN
>?N;CF?>BIQMIG?IH?QBIQILE?>CHNB?4ILF>1L;>? ?H
N?LMOMN;CH?>;HCHDOLS>OLCHANB?0?JN?G<?L;NN;=EM&H
NB?FIQM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIHNB?MNILSQ;MNCNF?>]1LSCHANI
??NN?LA;CH^;H>CN>?N;CF?>BIQNB?J?LMIHMOMN;CH?>
NB?CHDOLS@;FFCHA>IQHNB?MN;CLM;NB?LI@@C=?@N?LL?;>CHA
IH?I@NB?M?NQIP?LMCIHMI@NB?MNILSJ;LNC=CJ;HNM;HMQ?L?>
NB?M;G?MB;LCHA;H>;LIOM;FKO?MNCIHM;MCH0NO>S
MQ?JL?>C=N?>QB?HNB?=IHN?RN?PIE?>;>?;=NCP;NCHA
C?>?;LIOMCHA?GINCIHNB??@@?=NMIHNL;HMGCMMCIHQ?L?
$)&#!$"& (#&'&52.1;3%>6:@
L?P?LM?>#CLMNJ;LNC=CJ;HNMQ?L?less FCE?FSNIMB;L?NB?MNILS
C@NB?SQ?L?CHNB?BCABM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIH*;M
IJJIM?>NINB?FIQM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIH*#
p 0?=IH>NB?L?MOFNMQ?L?MCGCF;L@IL;LIOM;F
NB?BCABM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIH*?PIE?>F?MM;LIOM;F
NB;HNB?FIQM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIH*#
p 1BCL>;MQ?BSJINB?MCT?>NBCM>?=L?;M?CH;LIOM;F
G?>C;N?>NB??@@?=NI@=IH>CNCIHIHMB;LCHA IH>CNCIHQ;M
FCHE?> NI ;LIOM;F
BCAB:M;>H?MM
[ 0" N
[p ;LIOM;FQ;MFCHE?>NIMB;LCHA
;=NCP;NCIH
0"Np ;H>QB?HQ?CH=FO>?>
<INBM;>H?MM=IH>CNCIH;H>;LIOM;FCH;L?AL?MMCIHJL?>C=N
CHAMB;LCHA;LIOM;FG?>C;N?>NB??@@?=NI@M;>H?MMIHNL;HM
GCMMCIH0I<?FT[p
Discussion
1B? L?MOFNM I@ 0NO>S @OLNB?L OH>?LM=IL? NB? LIF? I@
;LIOM;FCHMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH IHMCMN?HNQCNBNB?@CH>CHAM
I@ IOL @C?F> MNO>S QB?H=IHN?HN ?PIE?>GIL?I@ ; FIQ
;LIOM;F?GINCIHCNQ;MF?MMFCE?FSNI<?MB;L?>#OLNB?L
GIL?NB?M??@@?=NMQ?L?;A;CH>LCP?H<S;LIOM;F4B?H;
MNILS?PIE?>GIL?M;>H?MMCN>?=L?;M?>;LIOM;FQBC=BCH
NOLH>?=L?;M?>NL;HMGCMMCIH1B?@CH>CHANB;NNB??@@?=NI@
MJ?=C@C=?GINCIHCHN?HMCNSIHNL;HMGCMMCIHL?P?LM?>QB?H
NB??GINCIHQ;M>?;=NCP;NCHAJLIPC>?M?P?HMNLIHA?L?PC
>?H=? @IL IOL NB?IL?NC=;F J?LMJ?=NCP?4BCF? CN =IOF> <?
;LAO?>NB;N=IHN?HN?PIECHAGIL??GINCIHCMGIL?CHN?L?MN
CHAIL?HA;ACHA;H>CH>??>JL?N?MNL?MOFNMMOAA?MNNB;NNBCM
CMNB?=;M?CHNBCM?RJ?LCG?HNNB?M?L?MOFNMMBIQNB;NMO=B
CH=L?;M?>?GINCIHG;S;=NO;FFS>?=L?;M?NL;HMGCMMCIHC@NB?
MJ?=C@C=?GINCIH?PIE?>CM=B;L;=N?LCT?><S>?;=NCP;NCIH
GENERAL DISCUSSION
1B??G?LA?H=?I@MI=C;FG?>C;?A#;=?<IIE1QCNN?L
B;M<IIMN?>CHN?L?MNCHQIL>I@GIONB;H>PCL;FG;LE?NCHA
&NCM=F?;LNB;N=IHMOG?LMI@N?HMB;L?IHFCH?=IHN?HN;H>NB;N
MI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIHCH@FO?H=?MJLI>O=N;>IJNCIH;H>M;F?M
<ONF?MMCMEHIQH;<IONQBS=IHMOG?LMMB;L?=IHN?HNIL
QBS=?LN;CH=IHN?HN<?=IG?MPCL;F#OLNB?LGIL?;FNBIOAB
>C@@OMCIHL?M?;L=BB;M?R;GCH?>BIQ=?LN;CHJ?IJF??A
MI=C;F BO<M CH@FO?HNC;FM ;H> MI=C;F H?NQILE MNLO=NOL?M
GCABNCH@FO?H=?MI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH<ONF?MM;NN?HNCIHB;M
<??HACP?H NIBIQ=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M I@ =IHN?HNNB;N MJL?;>
;=LIMMMI=C;FNC?MGCABNMB;J?=IFF?=NCP?ION=IG?M
1B?=OLL?HNL?M?;L=BN;E?M;GOFNCG?NBI>;JJLI;=BNI
MNO>SCHAPCL;FCNSS=IG<CHCHA;<LI;>;H;FSMCMI@PCL;FCNS
CHNB?@C?F>QCNB;M?LC?MI@=IHNLIFF?>F;<IL;NILS?RJ?LC
G?HNMQ?>I=OG?HN=B;L;=N?LCMNC=MI@PCL;F=IHN?HNQBCF?
;FMIMB?>>CHAFCABNIHQB;N>LCP?MMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH
,OL@CH>CHAMG;E?M?P?L;F=IHNLC<ONCIHMNINB??RCMNCHA
FCN?L;NOL? #CLMN NB?S CH@ILG NB? IHAICHA >?<;N? ;<ION
QB?NB?LJ?IJF?N?H>NIMB;L?JIMCNCP?ILH?A;NCP?=IHN?HN
4BCF?=IGGIHQCM>IGMOAA?MNMNB;NJ?IJF?N?H>NIJ;MM
;FIHAH?A;NCP?H?QMGIL?NB;HJIMCNCP?H?QMIOLL?MOFNM
CH>C=;N?NB;NJIMCNCP?H?QMCM;=NO;FFSGIL?PCL;F#OLNB?L
GIL?<S?R;GCHCHANB?@OFF=ILJOMI@New York Times =IH
N?HNC?;FF;LNC=F?M;P;CF;<F?Q?>?N?LGCH?NB;NJIMCNCP?
=IHN?HNCMGIL?FCE?FSNI<?BCABFSMB;L?>?P?H;@N?LQ?
=IHNLIF@ILBIQ@L?KO?HNFSCNI==OLM
0?=IH>IOLL?MOFNMCFFOMNL;N?NB;NNB?L?F;NCIHMBCJ<?NQ??H
?GINCIH;H>PCL;FCNSCMGIL?=IGJF?RNB;HP;F?H=?;FIH?
;H>NB;N;LIOM;F>LCP?MMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH IHMCMN?HNQCNB
IOL NB?ILCTCHA IHFCH? =IHN?HN NB;N ?PIE?> BCAB;LIOM;F
?GINCIHMQ;MGIL?PCL;FL?A;L>F?MMI@QB?NB?LNBIM??GI
NCIHMQ?L?I@;JIMCNCP?C?;Q?ILH?A;NCP?C?;HA?LIL
;HRC?NSH;NOL?,HFCH?=IHN?HNNB;N?PIE?>GIL?I@;>?;=
NCP;NCHA?GINCIHC?M;>H?MMBIQ?P?LQ;M;=NO;FFSF?MM
FCE?FS NI <? PCL;F "RJ?LCG?HN;FFS G;HCJOF;NCHA MJ?=C@C=
?GINCIHMCH;=IHNLIFF?>?HPCLIHG?HN=IH@CLGMNB?BSJINB?
MCT?> =;OM;F L?F;NCIHMBCJ <?NQ??H ;=NCP;NCIH ;H> MI=C;F
NL;HMGCMMCIH4B?HG;LE?NCHA=IHN?HN?PIE?>GIL?I@MJ?
=C@C=?GINCIHM=B;L;=N?LCT?><S;LIOM;FC?;GOM?G?HN CH
0NO>S;IL;HA?LCH0NO>S<CNQ;MGIL?FCE?FSNI<?
MB;L?><ONQB?HCN?PIE?>MJ?=C@C=?GINCIH=B;L;=N?LCT?>
<S>?;=NCP;NCIHC?M;>H?MMCH0NO>SCNQ;MF?MMFCE?FSNI
<?MB;L?>&H;>>CNCIHNB?M??@@?=NMQ?L?G?>C;N?><S;LIOM;F
@OLNB?LOH>?LM=ILCHACNMCGJ;=NIHMI=C;FNL;HMGCMMCIH
!?GIHMNL;NCHANB?M?L?F;NCIHMBCJMCH<INBNB?F;<IL;NILS
;H>NB?@C?F>;MQ?FF;M;=LIMM;F;LA?;H>>CP?LM?<I>SI@
=IHN?HNOH>?LM=IL?MNB?CLA?H?L;FCNS#OLNB?LGIL?;FNBIOAB
HIN;@I=OMI@IOL;H;FSMCMIOL@C?F>MNO>S;FMI;>>MNINB?
FCN?L;NOL? <S >?GIHMNL;NCHA NB;N GIL? JL;=NC=;FFS OM?@OF
CHN?L?MNCHA;H>MOLJLCMCHA=IHN?HNCMGIL?PCL;F#CH;FFSNB?
H;NOL;FCMNC=M?NNCHA;FFIQMOMNIG?;MOL?NB?L?F;NCP?CGJIL
N;H=?I@=IHN?HN=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M;H>?RN?LH;F>LCP?LMI@;NN?H
NCIHCHMB;JCHAPCL;FCNS4BCF?<?CHA@?;NOL?>JLIGCH?HNFS
@IL?R;GJF?CH=L?;M?MNB?FCE?FCBII>NB;N=IHN?HNQCFF<?
BCABFSMB;L?>IOLL?MOFNMMOAA?MNNB;N=IHN?HN=B;L;=N?LCM
NC=M;L?I@MCGCF;LCGJILN;H=?
Theoretical Implications
1BCM L?M?;L=B FCHEM JMS=BIFIAC=;F ;H> MI=CIFIAC=;F
;JJLI;=B?MNIMNO>SCHA>C@@OMCIH-LCILL?M?;L=BB;MGI>
?F?>JLI>O=N;>IJNCIH;MM;H>?R;GCH?>BIQMI=C;F
H?NQILEM MB;J? >C@@OMCIH ;H> M;F?M 3;H >?H OFN? ;H>
4OSNM %IQ?P?L G;=LIF?P?F =IFF?=NCP? ION=IG?M
MO=B;MQB;N<?=IG?MPCL;F;FMI>?J?H>IHGC=LIF?P?F
CH>CPC>O;F >?=CMCIHM ;<ION QB;N NI MB;L? IHM?KO?HNFS
QB?HNLSCHANIOH>?LMN;H>=IFF?=NCP?ION=IG?MCNCMCGJIL
N;HNNI=IHMC>?LNB?OH>?LFSCHACH>CPC>O;FF?P?FJMS=BIFIAC
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